Review of hierarchical theories of intelligence

Review of hierarchical theories of intelligence The theories of cognitive abilities have been advanced through the conglomeration of two similar theories on the structure of human cognitive abilities which have provided a trend in intelligence theories. In particular, Cattell (1941) and Horn (1965) theoretical frameworks on unitary traits that reflects certain basic aspect of cognitive functioning (Fogerty Stankov, 1988) along with the seminal work of Carrolls (1993) three stratum theory that proposed cognitive abilities was an expansion and extension of previous theories, notably Spearman (1927) concept of general intelligence (g) have influenced the advancement in understanding the concept of general abilities. McGrew (2004) article emphasizes the theory based assessment, specifically CHC theory based assessment in human cognitive abilities. The article focuses on the history of cognitive abilities theory particularly test development, operationalisation and interpretation and outlines salient points of the model along with evidence review in support of the model. Thus, McGrew (2004) provided an outline describing the conglomeration of these models in particular, the initial works of Cattell (1941) and Horn (1965) Gf Gc theory which proposed Gf (fluid intelligence) of individual differences in cognitive ability were the influences of two major classes of factors, educational-cultural opportunity, genetic factors and physiological neurological functioning (Ferrer McArdle, 2004) that affected the normal development of cognitive abilities and further postulating that Gc (crystallised intelligence) primarily consisted of representation of measurable outcome of additional environmentally infl uenced factors such as experience and acculturation (Alfonso, Flanagan Radwan, 2005. Cited in: Flanagan Harrison (Eds)). According to McGrew (2004), the theory was further expanded by Horn to include various aspects of human cognitive abilities that comprised of eight broad abilities: Fluid Intelligence (Gf), Crystallized Intelligence (Gc), Short-Term Acquisition and Retrieval (SAR or Gsm), Visual Intelligence (Gv), Auditory Intelligence (Ga), Long-Term Storage and Retrieval (TSR or Glr), Cognitive Processing Speed (Gs), Correct Decision Speed (CDS), and Quantitative Knowledge (Gq). (Horn, 1991. Cited in McGrew, Werder Woodcock (Eds)) proposing that the correlation between Gf -Gc is the result of an individuals investment in Gf through the acquisitioning of the variety of information and cognitive skills that represents Gc (Jensen, 2002. Cited in Sternberg Grigorenko (Eds)) as well as suggesting that over the period of interaction with the total environment, individuals who are more highly endowed with Gf attain a higher level of Gc (Fogerty Stankov, 1988) . Evidence in further support of the model relates to Carrolls (1993) seminal work Human Cognitive Abilities: A Survey of Factor-Analytic Studies, which implied that a distinct number of individual differences in cognitive abilities exist and the relationship amongst these factors can be obtained through classification into three different strata (Alfonso, Flanagan Radwan, 2005. Cited in Flanagan Harrison (Eds)). As such, Carroll (1993) represented the structure of intelligence as a pyramid where general intelligence (g) formed the apex as conceptualised by Spearman (Berk, 2000). He believed that g was the most important factor when determining intelligence and that general intelligence could be divided into many more sub-factors, thus he organised these sub-factors into domains of intellectual abilities representing three separate levels and listing these abilities in descending order of predominance (Carroll, 1993). Stratum III general intelligence factor, Stratum II included the a bilities of Fluid Intelligence (Gf), Crystallized Intelligence (Gc), General Memory and Learning (Gy), Broad Visual Perception(Gv), Broad Auditory Perception (Ga), Broad Retrieval Ability (Glr), Broad Cognitive CHC Theory of cognitive abilities Speediness (Gs), and Reaction Time/Decision Speed (Gt), including 69 narrow abilities within Stratum I that are subsumed by stratum II abilities (McGrew, 2004). Similarly, there is evidence to indicate that CHC has since been recognised as being the most thorough and well researched multiple view of intelligence to date ( McGrew, 2005; Evans, McGrew, Leforgee. 2001). More specifically, McGrew (2004) argues that contemporary psychometric approaches have resulted in an effort to present a comprehensive conceptualisation of human cognitive abilities based on factor analytic studies. However, McGrew (2004) concede that although psychometrics had been highly recognised within the field of applied intelligence research it had been a much slower acceptance within the field of intelligence testing. Noting, diversity in test measures as the disparity in the advancement of the CHC theory particularly in defining and interpreting cognitive abilities construct, as well as the non inclusion of fluid and crystallised intelligence along with the exclusion of corresponding research base as a means to the development of intelligent testing (Alfonso, Flanaga n Radwan, 2005). The author argued that the impetus of change within this sphere was due to the revise model of the Woodcock-Johnson Psycho-Educational Battery (WJ-R) based on Horn-Cattell Gf Gc theory as a cognitive model for test development which included two measure of each eight abilities. Moreover, that the amelioration of the WJ-R resulted in the foundation for the first major theory-to-practice bridging with major impact being on the applied measurement of intelligence. This approach of Woodcock (1990) became a blueprint for future intelligence test development thus, substantially influencing narrowing the contemporary psychometric theory and applied practice gap (Alfonso, Flanagan Radwan, 2005). CHC Theory of cognitive abilities McGrew (2004) postulated that as a result of Woodcock (1990) confirmatory factor analyses findings of major intelligences test sparked by the amelioration of the WJ-R permitted the freeing up of practitioners from constraints of most single intelligence batteries. The realisation by practitioners of the provision of a set of principles and procedures consequently from a cross battery approach as suggested by Woodcock (1990), allowed for greater measurement of a wider range of abilities by way of, systematically traversing amongst test batteries that were considered sufficient both in breath and depth in assessing various aspect of the broad range of cognitive abilities (Alfonso, Flanagan Radwan, 2005). The assumption of McGrew (2004) of Woodcocks (1990) work provided a transition in intelligence testing has had ample evidence in the literature (see McGrew Flanagan, 1998; Messick, 1992; Sternberg Kaufman, 1998) to support such a postulation. In the cross batteries approach McGrew Flanagan (1998) proposed the present of the provision of empirically based set of terms that is a standard nomenclature may significantly reduce or eliminate data misinterpretation generally through the combination of cognitive test. Accordingly, Messick (1998) implied that the utilisation of cross batteries approach would safe guards against two ubiquitous sources of invalidity in assessment- construct irrelevant variance and construct under representation. Furthermore, the attributes of cross batteries approach has typically focused on organise assessment that generate and test hypotheses that pertains to an individuals functioning by which reliable and valid conclusions are draw in a systematic mann er (Alfonso, Flanagan Radwan, 2005). It was therefore logical that focus on the structure of human cognitive abilities was of a critical importance given that there were diverse interpretations and understandings of the CHC Theory of cognitive abilities   With the changes in intelligence test development a systematic taxonomic structure was required in the field of intelligence, McGrew (2004) claims Carrolls (1993) seminal work Human Cognitive Abilities: A Survey of Factor-Analytic Studies provided the development of a common nomenclature that is a common set of terms and definition for describing broad and narrow cognitive abilities above and beyond the effect of g (McGrew, 2009). In doing so, Carroll (1993) was able to further the understanding of communication and intelligence measurement amongst scholars and practitioners, integrate and compare individual test across an array of intelligence batteries (McGrew, 2004). Moreover, Carrolls (1993) taxonomy on the structure of human cognitive abilities is grounded by exploratory factor analysis of 461 selected human cognitive abilities datasets, drawn from decades of research by various array of dedicated researchers in the field of intelligence (McGrew, 2004). The influence of the CHC taxonomic framework in the use of applied individual batteries of intelligence had ignited the search for common ground between cognitive and psychometric developments; hence, in McGrew (2004) article he had introduced the term spreading of the assessment gospel suggesting in order to study individual differences in cognitive abilities there needed to be a single broad and narrow ability taxonomy by which the constructs of abilities could be measured in the individually administered intelligence batteries. For this reason, McGrew (2004) is further suggesting that broad abilities should be considered as clusters in the construct of intelligent behaviour and therefore should be considered separately, thus, a move from the concept of single unitary constructs. CHC Theory of cognitive abilities The CHC model in the past decade has seen a series of exploratory and/or confirmatory factor analysis studies investigating the validity of a wide range of CHC constructs indicators. McGrew (2004) claims since Woodcocks (1990) series of joint factor analyses the majority of intelligence test prior to this only measured two or three broad cognitive abilities sufficiently, conceding that Carrolls (1993) was amongst the array of studies. However, it seems clear that although such representations are evident, the CHC theory has had major impact on intelligence test development due to exploratory and/or confirmatory factor analysis investigations that substantially increases research base to provide empirical support for the broad strokes of contemporary CHC theory (McGrew, 2004). McGrews (2004) article elucidate studies findings that support the CHC frame work through a comprehensive depiction of the general and broad abilities and their interrelationship in determining human cognitive abilities, for example multiple group confirmatory factor analysis methodological framework (see Bickley, Keith and Wolf, 1995) found support for the developmental invariance , whilst Taub McGrew ( in press) findings were consistent with that of Bickley et.al (1995) in providing additional support for validity of the broad and general stratum abilities of CHC theory, moreover, small sample structural studies provided a strong support for distinct CHC cognitive factors, however, a depiction is also clear that no single intelligence battery effectively measures all the broad abilities delineated in the framework of CHC (see Kaufman Kaufman, 1993; Pallier and Stankov, 1996). Research using cross batteries intelligence test such as WJ-R and Woodcock -Johnson Psycho-Educational Battery Third Edition (WJ-III) has demonstrated the importance of broad cognitive abilities in explaining domain specific knowledge for generalisation and correlations CHC Theory of cognitive abilities between construct indicators (McGrew, 2004). In his article, McGrew (2004) provides evidence based on major studies and it is easy to conclude from these findings the existence of these broad abilities. For instance, related cognitive abilities in which learning mediates the influence of fluid intelligence (Gf) and crystallised intelligence (Gc) with cognitive constructs such as general sequential, reasoning (RG), language development (LD), listening ability (LS) with other broad abilities; processing speed (Gs) and basic skills (Grw) (reading and spelling, reading comprehension). A central point in much research interest in intelligence theories has been whether general intelligence is embedded in every cognitive task. The CHC theory represents one of the best examples of collective science in applied psychology (McGrew, 2009), with its core origin being able to be pinpointed back to Spearmans (1927) presentation of the g factor of intelligence. The seminal work of Carrolls (1993) three stratum theory has been a major influence in the framework of CHC theory based on factor analysis of 461 datasets. As previously mentioned in this paper, Carroll (1993) believed that g was the most important factor when determining intelligence, evidence of g is able to be obtained when 60 narrow factor abilities (visualization, visual memory, deductive reasoning) of the first stratum are correlated producing a set of eight second stratum factors (fluid intelligence, crystallized intelligence, general memory and learning, broad visual perception, broad auditory perception, bro ad retrieval ability, broad cognitive speediness, and processing speed) which are positively inter-correlated. When these second stratum factors are analysed, a single third factor stratum of general intelligence emerges, whereas, in the two stratum model of Cattle-Horn the second broad order factors constitute the apex and are based on over 40 first-order factors (primary mental abilities) that forms the lower stratum denoting that there is only two general factors (fluid intelligence, CHC Theory of cognitive abilities crystallized intelligence) hence, it does not support a third order g factor to account for correlations among the broad sector order factors (Jensen, 2002). Guided by structural and empirical evidence the CHC theory arbitrate well in relation to general intelligence that is, g is measured depending upon the statistical analysis of measures of human cognitive abilities in determining cognitive strength and weaknesses of an individual. This is evident in McGrew (2004) assertion that working memory (MW) is a source of complex cognitive activities and is a critical issue in future studies (see McGrew Woodcock, 2001) for postulation of constancy of relations of MW to exert a large causal effect on complex performance, particularly in understanding the rise and decline over the life span. Furthermore, McGrew (2004) argues that measurement of specific abilities within the CHC framework is mainly due to disparity of the CHC theory in describing a relatively complete taxonomy of cognitive function, however, excludes other processes, such as directly testing sensory modalities. In doing so, CHC theory neglect other abilities that have found to be important in the construct of intelligent behaviour and achievement. Support for contemporary CHC theory is grounded in the extent of factor analytic research that produced the Gf Gc model and the three stratum model with the necessity of further research (heritability, neurocognitive, outcome criterion) to continue the validation, refinement and extension of the CHC taxonomy being evident in McGrew (2004) article suggesting human cognitive abilities is clearly multidimensional. As such, McGrew (2004) makes clear that Carrolls (1994, cited in McGrew) approach of open-ended empirical theory is a pathway to which future research are able to provide yet unknown and unmeasured factor abilities upon one or more levels of the CHC model. CHC Theory of cognitive abilities

Anwar Sadat and Margaret Atwood

Practice Essay These two speeches through their enduring power of intellectual and artistic qualities connected and compelled their audiences to reassess and challenge the message within their speeches. â€Å"Statement to the Knesset† (1977) by Anwar Sadat, using biblical references, forces audiences to see and envisage the wonders of his unified narrative for social, cultural and political change.Throughout the speech â€Å"Statement to the Knesset† (1997) by Anwar Sadat, his themes and ideas can be seen through his enduring power and artistic qualities, and his audiences are emotionally and intellectually engaged and thus more responsive to Sadat’s deliverance of their own views on their beliefs and aspirations. â€Å"Spotty-Handed Villainesses† (1994) by Margaret Atwood, using subversive irony and humour, forces her audiences to deconstruct the deception of ‘evil’ women within literature and with her enduring power engages her audiences in cries for the dismantling of social gender roles.The speeches set for study mould responders into co-authors whereby being engaged by the speeches enduring power of their intellectual and artistic qualities, and their audiences embrace the speeches worthy messages. Thus both speeches continue to be valid in the present day. Atwood discusses the relationship between literature and reality – in literature there is a requirement that ‘something else has to happen’ in the form of the plot, climax and resolution to engage the text. In reality we are happy with a ‘kind of eternal breakfast’ and we ask for nothing to really happen. In life we may ask for nothing more than a kind of eternal breakfast†. Yet, this doesn’t mean that literature is merely art divorced from real life. Atwood believes that the gender cross over and revolution in literature is a direct result in the recent history of the women’s movement. Thus by the enduring pow er of Atwood’s intellectual and artistic qualities, Atwood compares the relationship between literature and reality. Atwood then considers the women’s movement. Atwood welcomes the freedom to show different sorts of female behaviour and sees the feminist movement as beneficial, such as ‘the way power works in gender relations’. Isn’t bad behaviour supposed to be the monopoly of men? † Atwood is saying that these extreme feminists suggest that the ownership of bad behaviour in literature is for men only, not women. Therefore Atwood’s enduring power advises her audiences to look at what women are being perceived as through the women’s movement. Atwood criticises extreme feminists. Who show a tendency ‘to polarise morality by gender-that is, women were essentially good and men bad’. Novelists are seen as anti-feminist if women are cast as villainesses. Why should bad behaviour be ‘reserved’ for men? † Atwood sees bad behaviour as written in literature as socially realistic. Thus by Atwood’s intellectual and artistic qualities, she put-forth to her audiences how extreme feminists are stating that in literature women are meant to be perceived as good characters. Atwood questions how characters in novels should behave. The fact that audiences expect the male characters in Atwood’s novels should be stronger and that female characters are expected to be deprived of their free will, as in, the patriarchy made her do it.Atwood mockingly asserts â€Å"This is which should more properly be taken up with God†. Atwood explains that after all he was the one who created Adam who ‘sacrificed eternal life for an apple’. A female character could think the unthinkable and say the unsayable, however, according to the new moral thermometer of the times, it would be considered good and that the women who did them were praiseworthy. And so using the enduring power o f intellectual and artistic qualities, Atwood reveals her point of view of how male and female characters in novels should behave.Atwood negates this viewpoint with an overview of wicked women. As shown in the world’s literature, claiming wicked women exist in real life, so they have a place in literature. Atwood explains to her audiences some of the numerous bad female literary characters she knows of. Atwood points out that â€Å"there are bad women who do bad things for bad reasons, good women who do good things for good reasons, good women who do bad things for good reasons, bad women who do bad things for good reasons, and so forth†. Atwood gives xamples such as the Queen from Snow White and Lady Macbeth from Shakespeare’s play Macbeth and explains how that character portrays a wicked woman. Thus Atwood clarifies how wicked women are perceived in literature using the enduring power of her intellectual and artistic qualities. Sadat’s bid was to save h is Egyptian people and the entire Arab Nation from war. The main duty dictated by his responsibility is to exhaust all and every means in a bid to save his Egyptian Arab people and the entire Arab Nation of the horrors of new, shocking and destructive wars, which are, as Sadat says, foreseen by no other than God himself. I was convinced that the obligation of responsibility before God, and before the people, that I would go to the farthest corner of the world to address the Members of the Knesset†. Sadat is saying that he would do anything possible to address the Members of the Knesset, the representatives of the people of Israel, and Sadat would acquaint them with all the facts surging inside of him. And through his enduring power of his intellectual and artistic qualities Sadat shows his audiences what he is willing to do, to save his Egyptian people and the entire Arab Nation.The shock value of Sadat taking the initiative is partly why his mission had such diplomatic effect and change. When Sadat announced his decision to the entire world before the Egyptians people’s assembly, majority of the people were surprised and amazed. Some, gripped by the violent surprise, believed that Sadat’s decision was no more than â€Å"verbal juggling to cater for world public opinion†. Yet, other still interpreted it as political tactics to camouflage Sadat’s intention of launching a new war. But in the end Sadat’s speech had been successful and the wars between the Egyptian people and the Arab people had stopped.Therefore through Sadat’s long lasting rhetorical questions and themes and ideas he tells his audiences how his decision affected and changed the world. Sadat believes a landmark change of course is needed and the governments must arise above all forms of fanaticism and value life. Sadat believes that they must all rise above all forms of fanaticism, self-deception and obsolete theories of superiority. â€Å"The fami lies are still moaning under the cruel pain of widowhood and bereavement of sons, fathers and brothers†.Sadat using his enduring power of intellectual and artistic qualities he explains to his audiences that he truly believes that instead of worrying about the wars and the disagreements, they should all be more concerned about their people and how they are still grieving over their family members. Thus through Sadat’s intellectual and artistic qualities, he informs his audiences the reasons behind why there is a need for change. Sadat wanted a peace based on justice in the entire region, not just between Egypt and Israel. He states that there can be no peace without Palestine.Sadat said that that he and his people â€Å"do not want to encircle you or be encircled ourselves by destructive missiles ready for launching, nor by the shells of grudges and hatred†. Using his repetition of â€Å"a permanent peace based on justice† Sadat explained to his audiences that the Egyptians truly seek peace, and welcome the Israelis to live among them in peace and security. So, through the use of Sadat’s enduring power of his intellectual and artistic qualities, he shows his reason for wanting a peace based on justice between their entire region.In the conclusion of his speech, Sadat asks for partnership in the formation of a ‘peace agreement in Geneva’. Sadat explained the details of the partnership using enumeration. He summed it up to make five points. â€Å"Third: the right of all states in the area to live in peace within their boundaries†. Through his use of intellectual and artistic qualities, Sadat is telling his audiences that if this peace agreement is approved, he will make sure that everyone would be able to lie safely and in peace.In conclusion I believe that both speeches by, Anwar Sadat and Margaret Atwood, through their enduing power of intellectual and artistic qualities, and in much detail have given their audiences an enormous amount of information about their topics. Atwood proved to us that in literature, women can be either the good or bad character, because men are not always the bad person. And that people should overcome the idea of men being portrayed as bas characters all the time. Sadat similarly told his audiences that the Egyptian and the Israeli people can overcome the differences between them and start a permanent peace based on justice.

The Appeal of I Search Essay Topics

The Appeal of I Search Essay Topics It is possible to also get assistance if you opt to get a history research paper from a trustworthy service to guarantee the best grades. Knowing the legality of the organization you're purchasing the sample paper is paramount. You will produce spectacular top quality info. If you still feel you need help, even if you've managed to select a topic, you may always employ a custom writing service to assist you produce a fabulous research paper of which you'll be proud and will guarantee you a nice mark. For some students, a collection of topic is the easiest part. Locating a topic for your study can be hard, but there are many great techniques to think of intriguing ideas. You will need to go for a theme that provides you room for fresh suggestions and bright perspectives. It would be less difficult to learn more about the theme and write about doing it. Finding the most suitable topic is vital to your psychology research writing. 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The Individual vs. Big Brother in 1984 Essay - 1173 Words

The Individual vs. Big Brother in 1984 â€Å"That is what has brought you here. You would not make the act of submission which is the price of sanity. You preferred to be a lunatic, a minority of one. Only the disciplined mind can see reality, Winston. [†¦] Reality is not external. Reality exists in the human mind, and nowhere else. Not in the individual mind, which can make mistakes, and in any case soon perishes: only in the mind of the Party, which is collective and immortal. Whatever the Party holds to be the truth, is truth. It is impossible to see reality except by looking through the eyes of the Party.† This is how O’Brien, a high-ranking official of the world of Nineteen Eighty-Four, describes the worldview forced into the minds of†¦show more content†¦The Thought Police would get him just the same. He had committed -- would still have committed, even if he had never set pen to paper -- the essential crime that contained all others in itself. Thoughtcrime, they called it. Thoughtcrime w as not a thing that could be concealed for ever. You might dodge successfully for a while, even for years, but sooner or later they were bound to get you. Thus, the ultimate evil against the government had already been committed. The act of simply thinking in an unorthodox manner was irreparable and unquestionable, much like the rigid authority by which Oceania was governed. Therefore, Winston’s unique train of thought, the staple of individualism, was a direct confrontation with the Party’s doctrines. If simply thinking in a non-conventional way is the crime, then unorthodox actions are the epidemy of anarchy. Winston’s first true act of unorthodoxy was the purchase and use of the diary. With this came the realization that he was now doomed, and that capture lied in the future â€Å"as surely as 99 precedes 100† . Regardless of what he did, it was only a matter of time before he was captured and killed by the Thought Police. Now came the challenge of staying alive as long as possible. But before he would spend much time on this task, something unexpected occurred: he found a love interest. Her name was Julia, and she worked in the same branch of the government as he did, but in a differentShow MoreRelatedThe Problem Of Self-Expression In 1984 By George Orwell848 Words   |  4 Pages(Orwell70). In George Orwells 1984 he shows the authority a government can have on ones life even when all they want is self-expression. Many are too frightened to rebel, yet when one do es it impacts his life forever. Even though the society of 1984 by George Orwell claims to be complete and total censorship, the problem of wanting more self-expression is still evident which is shown through indirect characterization, symbolism, and themes. 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